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In order to understand
qigong, you must first understand qi. Qi is the energy or natural force that fills the universe. There are three general types of qi. Heaven (the sky or universe) has heaven qi (tian qi, 天氣), which is made up of the forces that the heavenly bodies exert on the earth, such as sunshine, moonlight, and the moon's effect on the tides. The earth has earth qi (di qi, 地氣), which absorbs the heaven qi and is influenced by it.
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Dr. Yang, Jwing-Ming in postures from | ||||
Humans have human qi (ren qi, 人氣), which is influenced by the other two. In ancient times, the Chinese believed that it was heaven qi that controlled the weather, climate, and natural disasters. When this qi or energy field loses its balance, it strives to rebalance itself. Then the wind must blow, rain must fall, and even tornadoes and hurricanes must happen in order for the heaven qi to reach a new energy balance. Heaven qi also affects human qi, and divination and astrology are attempts to explain this.
Under heaven qi is earth qi. It is influenced and controlled by heaven qi. For example, too much rain will force a river to flood or change its path. Without rain, the plants will die. The Chinese believe that earth qi is made up of lines and patterns of energy, as well as the earth's magnetic field and the heat concealed underground. These energies must also balance; otherwise, disasters such as earthquakes will occur. When the qi of the earth is balanced, plants will grow and animals will prosper. Also, each individual person, animal, and plant has its own qi field, which always seeks to be balanced. When any individual living thing loses its balance, it will sicken, die, and decompose.
You must understand that all natural things, including humans, grow within and are influenced by the natural cycles of heaven qi and earth qi. Since you are part of this nature (Dao, 道), you must understand heaven qi and earth qi. Then you will be able to adjust yourself, when necessary, to fit more smoothly into the natural cycle, and you will learn how to protect yourself from the negative influences in nature. This is the major goal of qigong practice.
From this, you can see that in order to have a long and healthy life, the first rule is that you must live in harmony with the cycles of nature and avoid and prevent the negative influences. The Chinese have researched nature for thousands of years. Some of the information on the patterns and cycles of nature has been recorded in books, one of which is the Book of Changes
(Yi Jing, 易經). This book gives the average person formulas to trace when the season will change, when it will snow, when a farmer should plow or harvest. You must remember that nature is always repeating itself. If you observe carefully, you will be able to see many of these routine patterns and cycles caused by the rebalancing of the qi fields.
Over thousands of years, the Chinese have researched the interrelationships of all things in nature, especially about human beings. From this experience, they have created various qigong exercises to help bring the body's qi circulation into harmony with nature's cycles. This helps to avoid illnesses caused by weather or seasonal changes. After a long period of research and study, the Chinese also discovered that through qigong practice they were able to strengthen their qi or internal energy circulation, and slow down the degeneration of the body, gaining not only health but also a longer life. The realization that such things were possible greatly spurred new research.
You can see that qi is energy and is found in heaven, in the earth, and in every living thing. All of these different types of energy interact with each other and can convert into each other. In China, the word "gong" (功) is often used instead of "gongfu" (功夫), which means energy and time. Any study or training that requires a lot of energy and time to learn or to accomplish is called gongfu. The term can be applied to any special skill or study as long as it requires time, energy, and patience. Therefore, the correct definition of qigong is any training or study dealing with qi that takes a long time and a lot of effort.
Qi exists in everything. Since the range of qi is so vast, the Chinese have divided it into three categories, parallel to the three natural powers (san cai, 三才) of heaven, earth, and man. Generally speaking, heaven qi is the biggest and the most powerful. This heaven qi contains within it the earth qi, and within this heaven and earth qi lives humans, with their own qi. You can see from the accompanying diagram that human qi is part of heaven and earth qi. However, since the human beings who research qi are mainly interested in human qi, the term qigong is generally used to refer only to qi training for people.
As you can see, qigong research should include heaven qi, earth qi, and human qi. Understanding heaven qi is very difficult, however, and it was especially so in ancient times when the science was just developing. The major rules and principles relating to heaven qi can be found in such books as The Five Elements and Ten Stems (Wuxing and Shitiangan, 五行與十天干); Celestial Stems (Shierdizhi, 十二地支) ; and the Yi Jing
(易經)
Many people have become proficient in the study of earth qi. They are called geomancy teachers (di li shi, 地理師) or wind water teachers (feng shui shi, 風水師). These experts use the accumulated body of geomantic knowledge and the Yi Jing to help people make important decisions, such as where and how to build a house or even where to locate a grave. This profession is still quite common in China.
The Chinese people believe that human qi is affected and controlled by heaven qi and earth qi and that they in fact determine your destiny. Some people specialize in explaining these connections; they are called calculate life teachers (suan ming shi, 算命师) or fortune tellers.
Most qigong research has focused on human qi. Since qi is the source of life, if you understand how qi functions and know how to affect it correctly, you should be able to live a long and healthy life. Many different aspects of human qi have been researched, including acupuncture, acupressure, herbal treatment, meditation, and qigong exercises. The use of acupuncture, acupressure, and herbal treatment to adjust human qi flow has become the root of Chinese medical science. Meditation and moving qigong exercises are widely used by the Chinese people to improve their health or even to cure certain illnesses. Meditation and qigong exercises serve an additional role in that Daoists and Buddhists use them in their spiritual pursuit of enlightenment and Buddhahood.
You can see that the study of any of the aspects of qi should be called qigong. However, since the term is ordinarily used today only in reference to the cultivation of human qi, we will use it only in this narrower sense to avoid confusion.
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The above is from Simple Qigong Exercise for Health 2nd Ed. Rev. by Dr. Yang, Jwing-Ming. A newer edition of the book is available.
Dr. Yang, Jwing-Ming is an acclaimed author and teacher of Kung Fu, Tai Chi Chuan, and is a leading authority on Qigong (Chi Kung).
Dr. Yang was born on August 11th, 1946, in Xinzhu Xian, Taiwan, Republic of China. He started his Kung Fu training at the age of fifteen under Master Cheng, Gin-Gsao. After thirteen years of study (1961-1974), Dr. Yang became an expert in the White Crane Style of Chinese martial arts. At the age of sixteen, Dr. Yang began the study of Yang Style Taijiquan under Master Kao Tao
At age eighteen Dr. Yang entered Tamkang University in Taipei to study physics. Dr. Yang came to the United States in 1974 to study Mechanical Engineering at Purdue University, where he earned his Ph.D.
Yang's Martial Arts Association was established in Boston, Massachusetts in 1982. With the intent of preserving traditional Chinese Kung Fu and Qigong, Dr. Yang, Jwing-Ming began training students in the rigors of Shaolin Long Fist and White Crane Gongfu as well as Yang Style Tai Chi Chuan. Dr. Yang also undertook his life-long dream of teaching and researching the Chinese arts and introducing them to the West through many books, videos and DVDs. In 2005, he opened YMAA Retreat Center in Northern California teaching five and ten year programs to ensure that the authentic lineage of traditional Chinese arts will continue for generations.
For more information about his life and work see: Dr. Yang, Jwing-Ming. YMAA.
Video: Dr. Yang, Jwing-Ming Biography (YMAA) Yang's Martial Arts Association. YouTube.com
YMAA (Yang’s Martial Arts Association) - more information at http://ymaa.com and https://ymaa.com/publishing
Normally, it takes at least three years to learn the taijiquan sequence and to circulate qi (energy) smoothly in coordination with the breathing and postures. You should then learn to transport qi and develop qi balance. Even after you have accomplished this, there is still more to learn before you can be considered a proficient taijiquan martial artist. You must learn to strengthen your qi through practice, you must develop a sense of having an enemy in front of you during the sequence, and lastly, you must learn how to train jin (emitting power) during the sequence.
Dr. Yang demonstrates the posture "Step Back and Repulse the Monkey" (Dao Nian Hou) 倒攆猴*
In taijiquan, qi plays a major role in jin.[1] When qi is strong and full, then the jin will also be strong. An important way to strengthen and extend your qi is to practice the sequence slower and slower. This is the yin aspect of taijiquan practice, which helps you to build both a strong, concentrated mind and internal qi. If it usually takes 20 minutes to finish the entire sequence, increase the time to 25 minutes, then 30 minutes, and so on. Do not add any more breaths. Everything is the same except that every breath that is used to lead the qi gets longer and longer. In order to do this you must be very calm and relaxed, and your qi must be full like a drum or balloon, first in your abdomen and later in your whole body.
If you can extend a sequence that normally takes 20 minutes to one hour, your qi will be very full and fluid, your mind calm, and the postures very relaxed. When you do the sequence at this speed, your pulse and heartbeat will slow down, and you will be in a deep self-hypnotic meditative state. You will hardly notice your physical body, but instead you will feel like a ball of energy. When this happens you feel you are transparent.
Even when you can do the form very well, it may be dead. To make it come alive you must develop a sense of enemy. When practicing the solo sequence, you must imagine there is an enemy in front of you and you must clearly feel his movements and his interaction with you. Your ability to visualize realistically will be greatly aided if you practice the techniques with a partner. There are times when you will not use visualizations, but every time you do the sequence your movement must be flavored with this knowledge of how you interact with an opponent.
"Single Whip" part 1 (Dan Bian) 單鞭*
The more you practice with this imaginary enemy before you, the more realistic and useful your practice will be. If you practice with a very vivid sense of enemy, you will learn to apply your qi and jin naturally, and your whole spirit will melt into the sequence. This is not unlike performing music. If one musician just plays the music and the other plays it with his whole heart and mind, the two performances are as different as night and day. In one case the music is dead, while in the other it is alive and touches us.
If you don't know how to incorporate jin into the forms, then even if you do the sequence for many years it will still be dead. In order for the sequence to be meaningful, jin and technique must be combined. An important way to do this is to practice fast taijiquan. Practicing fast taijiquan is part of the Yang aspect of taijiquan and it allows you to manifest your internal qi into external forms and power. Once you can do the sequence of movements automatically and can coordinate your breathing and qi circulation with the movements, you should practice doing the form faster and faster. Remember, if you ever get into a fight, things are likely to move pretty fast, so you have to be able to respond fast in order to defend yourself effectively. If you only practice slowly, then when you need to move fast your qi will be broken, your postures unstable, and your yi scattered. If any of this happens, you will not be able to use your jin to fight.
"The Fair Lady Weaves with Shuttle"
(Zuo Yu Nu Chuan Suo) 玉女穿梭*
Therefore, once you have developed your qi circulation you should practice the sequence faster until you can do it at fighting speed. Make sure you don't go too fast too soon, or you will sacrifice the essentials such as yi concentration, qi balance, breath coordination, and the storage of jin in the postures. When doing fast taiji, do not move at a uniform speed. Incorporate the pulsing movement of jin so that you are responding appropriately to the actions of your imaginary enemy. It is difficult to develop the pulsing movement of jin solely by doing the sequence, so you should also do jin training either before or concurrently with the fast taijiquan.
If you are interested in knowing more about taijiquan jin development refer to Tai Chi Theory and Martial Power, published by YMAA. [1] [2]
Since taijiquan is an internal qigong martial style, correct posture is essential. Incorrect postures can cause many problems: a tight posture can stagnate the internal qi circulation, wrong postures may expose your vital points to attack, floating shoulders and elbows will break the jin and reduce the jin storage.
Taijiquan students are generally taught to make the postures large at first. This helps the beginner to relax, makes it easier to see and feel the movements, and also helps him or her to sense the qi flow. Furthermore, because large postures are more expanded and relaxed, the qi flow can be smoother. Large posture taijiquan was emphasized by Yang, Cheng-fu [3] and has been popularly accepted as the best taijiquan practice for health since 1926.
"Single Whip" part 2 (Dan Bian) 單鞭*
Large postures also make it easier to train jin. It is more difficult to learn jin with small postures because the moves are smaller and quicker, and they require more subtle sensing jins. Large postures build the defensive circle larger and longer than small postures, which allows you more time to sense the enemy's jin and react. It is best to first master the large circles and only then to make the circles smaller and increase your speed.
In addition, when you begin taijiquan, you should first train with low postures and then gradually get higher. When you first start training taijiquan, you will not understand how to build your root by leading your qi to the bubbling well cavity
KI 1: Yong Quan on the soles of your feet. Without this firm foundation, you will tend to float and your jin will be weak. To remedy this problem, you should first train with postures, which will give you a root even without qi and simultaneously develop your qi circulation. Only when you have accomplished grand circulation [4] and the qi can reach the bubbling well can you use it to build the internal root. This is done by visualizing the qi flowing through your feet and extending into the ground like the roots of a tree.
At this time you may start using higher postures and relaxing your leg muscles. This will facilitate the qi flow, which in turn will help you to relax even more. In the higher levels of taijiquan, muscle usage is reduced to the minimum, and all the muscles are soft and relaxed. When this stage is reached, qi is being used efficiently and is the predominant factor in the jin. Usually it takes more than thirty years of correct training to reach this level. Train according to your level of skill, starting with the larger and lower postures and only move to the smaller and higher postures as your skill increases.
To summarize: build your qi both externally and internally, and circulate it through the entire body. After the internal qi can reach the limbs, use this qi to support your jin. Gradually de-emphasize the use of the muscles, and rely more and more on using the mind to guide the qi. Train the postures from large to small, low to high, and slow to fast. First build the defensive circle large, and then make it smaller. For maximum jin, strengthen the root, develop power in the legs, balance your yi "mind" and qi, exercise control through the waist, and express your will through your hands. It is said in the Zhang, San-feng classic: [5]
Editor's comments: The above is from How to Practice a Taijiquan Sequence, by Dr. Yang, Jwing-Ming. It was slightly modified to fit the style and format of Qi Encyclopedia.
[1] ^ Jin is the manifestation of Qi [bio-energy or bio-electricity] into muscular power. See p.73 in Dr. Yang Jwing-Ming. Tai Chi Theory and Martial Power: Advanced Yang Style Tai Chi Chaun YMAA, 1996.
*Photos of Dr. Yang in this article were produced by Paulo Segadaes.
See Dr. Yang, Jwing-Ming for further biographical and publications information.
Ren Qi: Chart from the Ming Dynasty (c.1368–1644) showing the Pericardium Meridian used in acupuncture.
Qi is the energy or natural force which fills the universe.
The Chinese believe in Three Powers (San Cai) of the universe: Heaven (Tian), Earth (Di) and Human (Ren). Heaven Qi is the most important of the three, consisting of forces exerted by heavenly bodies, such as sunshine, moonlight, gravity and energy from the stars. Weather, climate and natural disasters are governed by Heaven Qi. Every energy field strives to stay in balance, so when Heaven Qi loses its balance, it will rebalance itself, through wind, rain and even tornadoes and hurricanes.
Earth Qi is controlled by Heaven Qi. Too much rain forces a river to flood or change its path, but without rain, vegetation will die. The Chinese believe Earth Qi is made up of lines and patterns of energy, as well as the earth's magnetic field and the heat concealed underground. These energies must also be in balance, otherwise disasters such as earthquakes occur. When Earth Qi is balanced and harmonized, plants grow and animals thrive.
Finally, each individual person, animal, and plant has its own Qi field which always seeks balance. By losing Qi balance, an individual sickens, dies and decomposes. All natural things, including mankind and our Human Qi, are determined by the natural cycles of Heaven Qi and Earth Qi.
In China, Qi is also defined as any energy which demonstrates power and strength, be it electricity, magnetism, heat or light. Electric power is called electric Qi (Dian Qi), and heat is called heat Qi (Re Qi ). The weather is called Heaven Qi (Tian Qi) because it indicates the energy state of the heavens. When a person is alive, his body's energy is called Human Qi (Ren Qi). Qi also expresses the energy state of something, especially of living things. When something is alive it has Vital Qi (Huo Qi), and when dead it has Dead Qi (Si Qi) or Ghost Qi (Gui Qi). When a person is righteous and has the spiritual strength to do good, he is said to have Normal Qi or Righteous Qi (Zheng Qi). The spiritual state or morale of an army is called its Energy State (Shi Qi). (see table 1)
Qi can represent energy itself [unmanifested potential], or the state of the energy [the kinetic physical realization][editor's comments]. It is important to understand this when you practice Qigong, so your mind is not channeled into a narrow understanding of Qi, limiting your future understanding and development.
Now we will discuss the narrower definition of Qi with which people today are most familiar. Among the Three Powers, the Chinese have been most concerned with Qi affecting human health and longevity. After four thousand years emphasizing Human Qi, when people mention Qi they usually mean the Qi circulating in our bodies.
Qi, originally meaning "no fire"
In ancient Chinese medical and Qigong documents, the word Qi was written "
". This character consists of two words, "无" on top, which means "nothing", and "灬" at the bottom, which means "fire." In ancient times, physicians and Qigong practitioners attempted to balance the Yin and Yang Qi circulating in the body, so there was "no fire" in the internal organs. Each internal organ needs a specific amount of Qi to function properly. If it receives an improper amount, usually too much which makes it too Yang or over-energized, it starts to malfunction, in time causing physical damage. The goal of acupuncture and the ancient qigong precursors, Dao-Yin and Tu-Na [breathing exercises], literally "utter and admit") was to attain a state of "no fire," which eventually became the word Qi.
Qi, later became "air" + "rice"
But in more recent publications, the Qi of "no fire" has been replaced by the word "氣" again constructed of two words, "气" which means "air," and "米" which means "rice." Later practitioners realized that post-birth Qi is produced by breathing in air and consuming food. Air is called "Kong Qi", literally "Space Energy."
For a long time, people debated what type of energy circulates in our bodies. Many believed it to be heat, others electricity, while others again assumed it was a mixture of heat, electricity and light. This debate continued into the 1980s, when the concept of Qi gradually became clear. Today, science postulates that, with the possible exception of gravity, there is actually only one type of energy in the universe, namely electromagnetic energy. Light and heat are also manifestations of electromagnetic energy. The Qi in our bodies is actually bioelectricity, and our bodies are a living electromagnetic field. Thus, the Qi is affected by our thoughts, feelings, activities, the food we eat, the quality of the air we breathe, our lifestyles, the natural energy that surrounds us, and also the unnatural energy which modern science inflicts upon us, such as radiation from cell phones and many other frequencies.
The following scientific formula represents the major biochemical reaction in our body:
As you can see, rice is glucose, oxygen is air, and bioelectricity is Qi.
The Chinese have studied Qi for thousands of years, recording information on the patterns and cycles of nature in books such as the Yi Jing (The Book of Changes, 1122 B.C.), which describes the natural forces of Heaven, Earth, and Human. These Three Powers manifest as Heaven Qi, Earth Qi, and Human Qi, with their definite rules and cycles. The rules are unchanging, while the cycles return to repeat themselves. The Yi Jing applies these principles to calculate changes in natural Qi, through a process called The Eight Trigrams (Bagua). From the Eight Trigrams are derived the 64 hexagrams. The Yi Jing was probably the first book describing Qi and its variations in nature and man. The relationship of the Three Natural Powers and their Qi variations were later discussed extensively in the book, Theory of Qi's Variation (Qi Hua Lun).
| English | Pinyin | Chinese |
|---|---|---|
| Three Powers | San Cai | 三才 |
| Heaven Qi | Tian Qi | 天气 |
| Earth Qi | Di Qi | 地气 |
| Human Qi | Ren Qi | 人气 |
| Electric Qi | Dian Qi | 电气 |
| Heat Qi | Re Qi | 热气 |
| Vital Qi | Huo Qi | 活气 |
| Dead Qi | Si Qi | 死气 |
| Ghost Qi | Gui Qi | 鬼气 |
| Normal Qi or Righteous Qi | Zheng Qi | 正气 |
| The Morale or Energy State of soldiers | Shi Qi | 士气 |
| Air or literally “Space Energy” | Kong Qi | 空气 |
Table 1: Chinese Script for Key Terms
Human Qi has been studied most thoroughly, encompassing many different aspects. The Chinese believe Human Qi is affected and controlled by Heaven Qi and Earth Qi, and that they in fact determine a person's destiny. By understanding the relationship between nature and people, and also Human Relations (Ren Shi), you may predict wars, the destiny of a country, a person's desires and temperament, and even their future. However, the greatest achievement in the study of Human Qi is in regard to health and longevity. Since Qi is the source of life, if you understand how Qi functions and know how to regulate it correctly, you may live a long and healthy life. As a part of nature, you are channeled into its cycles, and it is in your best interest to follow the way of nature. This is the meaning of Dao (Tao), which may be translated as the Natural Way.
Many different aspects of Human Qi have been researched for over 4,000 years, involving massage, herbal treatment, meditation, and eventually acupuncture and Qigong exercises. Their use in adjusting Human Qi flow has become the root of Chinese medical science. Meditation and moving Qigong exercises are used to improve health and cure certain illnesses. Daoists and Buddhists also use meditation and Qigong exercises in their pursuit of enlightenment. To be most accurate, the study of any of the aspects of Qi including Heaven Qi, Earth Qi, and Human Qi should be called Qigong.
Editor's notes: This entry is from Qigong Meditation: Small Circulation, by Dr. Yang, Jwing-Ming. YMAA, 2006, pp. 5-8. The original excerpt also available as “Basic Concepts of Qi and Qigong-Part 1” at http://ymaa.com. It was adapted to fit the style and format of Qi Encyclopedia.
Governing and Conceptional Vessels
The keys to regulating the breathing and transporting Qi (energy) are in two places: the Huiyin cavity located between the genitals and anus, and the palate of the mouth. The Huiyin cavity is the connecting point of the four Yin Qi vessels and is the controlling and releasing gate for the four Yin Qi reservoirs. When the Huiyin is pushed out, the Qi in the Yin vessels is released and when the Huiyin is lifted upward, the Qi in the Yin vessels is contained and condensed. For example, when you laugh out loud, your exhalation is longer than your inhalation, and when you exhale, the Huiyin is pushed out naturally, the entire body's Yang is manifested and the Guardian Qi is strengthened; consequently, the body gets warmer and begins to sweat. Conversely, when you are sad and depressed, the inhalation is longer than the exhalation and when you inhale, the Huiyin is lifted upward naturally, the Marrow Qi is increased and the Guardian Qi is condensed inward, hence the body feels cooler. From these you can see that when you practice Qigong, coordinating the breathing with the Huiyin's lifting and pushing is one pf the key knacks to governing the entire body's Qi status.
In the past, it was common that a master would keep these two secret keys of regulating to himself. These secrets would not be revealed to the student until he/she proved trustworthy. They were not passed down to those disciples who were not loyal and moral.
One of the secret keys is learning how to control the Huiyin (perineum). This place is the controlling gate of the body's Yin and Yang. Huiyin means "meet Yin" in Chinese and is the meeting place of the four Yin vessels: Conception (Ren Mai), Thrusting (Chong Mai), Yin Heel (Yinqiao Mai), and Yin Linking Vessels (Yinwei Mai). When this gate is pushed out, the Qi in these four Yin vessels is released, and when this gate is held up, the Qi in the four Yin vessels is kept in and preserved. Because of this, this gate can control the body's Yin-Yang status. In my personal experience, this place acts as a pump or a piston to a Qi chamber that controls the storage and release of Qi.
The other key is the palate of the mouth. Daoists believe that the palate is the connecting place of the Conception and Governing Vessels. Normally, the palate is not connected to the tip of the tongue and therefore the Qi is stagnant at the throat area for uttering sound. Therefore, due to the stagnation of the Qi, the mouth is dry. The Conception and Governing Vessels are not well connected in the mouth area. However, if you practice your martial art or Qigong without the necessity of making a sound, then you should touch your tongue upward to the palate at all times so as to connect the Conception and Governing Vessels. When this happens, the root of the tongue will generate saliva to moisturize the throat and to calm down the Yang fire, and allow the Qi to be transported between these two main Qi Vessels without stagnation. This is what is called "releasing the heavenly water." This tongue connection is also called "building the magpie bridge" (Da Que Qiao). According to a Chinese story, long ago a Cowherd (Niu Lang) and a Weaving Maid (Zhi Nu) would meet once a year on the seventh day of the seventh moon on a bridge across the Milky Way. The bridge was formed by sympathetic magpies. This story has become a symbol of Yin and Yang's interacting or connecting in Qigong practice. When Yin and Yang meet, then the body can be harmonized.
When the saliva is generated to a comfortable amount, you should swallow it and use the mind to lead it down to the Real Dan Tian. This will help you lead the fire Qi downward to cool down the body.
If those who are learning Taiji can apply the above two keys into their regular natural breathing, then the accomplishment of Taiji Qigong can be achieved within days. At the beginning, it is hard to control your Huiyin's movement smoothly and naturally. In addition, due to the positioning of the tongue, an uncomfortable and tense feeling may be experienced at the root of the tongue. However, after you practice for some time, you will see it will become easier and more comfortable, and your internal practice will be more efficient and beneficial.
This subject is further explored in the book, The Root of Chinese Qigong.
Editor's notes: This entry is from https://ymaa.com/articles/qigong-meditation/regulating-breathing. It was slightly modified to fit the style and format of Qi Encyclopedia.
See Dr. Yang, Jwing-Ming for further biographical and publications information.
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Related: Qi | Modified: 09/11/2024 |
